Evolution of thoughts in Scientific Management Essay Example for Free

Evolution of thoughts in Scientific Management Essay At the first stage where groups of people were insignificant, management in all spheres was carried out by one person the leader of this group. Further, in process of group growth and complication of functions carried out by them, the necessity of labour division and group differentiation has appeared. But it couldnt happen at once, it required centuries. The Egyptian pyramids build in 3000 2000 B.C. are a good example not only ancient Egyptians culture, but also their administrative art. Construction of huge pyramids demanded, first of all, precise planning. While the practice of management can be traced back to 3000 B.C., it was not given serious attention until 1800 when large organisations emerged. Industrial revolution has given a push to development of theoretical researches and management practices. However, till an epoch of capitalism function of management was carried out by the owner himself and a small group of the persons approached to him. The role of the specially trained managers developed during an epoch of monocapitalism. Having been faced with a competition, changeable environment, managers developed knowledge system of how it is better to use resources. During all history of management development we distinguish two approaches: classical and modern. Classical approach allows to allocate four patterns of management thought: 1898 Scientific management 1916 Administrative management 1920 Bureaucracy 1927 Human relations SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT Occurrence of scientific management takes place at the beginning of 20th century and is connected to F.W.Taylors name, Henri L.Gantt, Frank and Lilian Gilbreth. Scientific management focuses on worker and machine relationship. Organisational productivity can be increased by increasing the efficiency of production process. In 1911, Frederick Taylor, known as the Father of scientific management, published Principles of Scientific Management in which he proposed to design  work methods to increase productivity. One of his famous experiments was performed at Bethlehem Steel Company in Pittsburgh. He examined the time and movements, developed a better method for performing that job and trained the worker. In addition, Taylor offered a piece rate that increased as workers produced more. Taylors studies were followed by Gibreths, a husband and a wife, who also helped to find more efficient ways for workers to produce output. Frank Gilbreth made his contribution in the field of brick lying by changing an 18 step process into 5 step that led to increased productivity by about 200 percent. The Gibreths believed that were was one best way to perform an operation. However this one best way could be replaced when a better way was introduced. Other representative of Scientific Management was Henri Gantt. He developed a Gantt chart, which is used for scheduling multiple task over a time period. He developed a pay system with a guaranteed minimum wage and bonus systems for people on fixed wages and brought in a significant contribution to the leadership theory development. ADMINISTRATIVE MANAGEMENT Unlike Scientific Management which focused its attention on productivity, Administrative Management have engaged in development of management in the organisation as a whole and was concerned about administrative part of the organisation. The ancestor of this school was Henri Fayol. He worked as a mining engineer and came to realise that managing an enterprise required a lots of skills apart from technical ones. Henri Fayol was the first to identify the four management functions: Planning Organising Leading Controlling He also developed guidelines for managers to follow. These guidelines form fourteen principles for effective management. Other contributor to Administrative Management was Mary Parker Follet. She pointed out that all managers want flexibility, and she also distinguished between the motivation of individuals and groups. BUREAUCRACY Max Weber, known as a father of Modern Sociology, concentrated on how to structure an organisation for success. Weber outlined key elements of an ideal form of structure, which he believed would develop efficiency and called it bureaucracy. The bureaucratic structure had a number of important advantages for large organisations. The division of labour increased efficiently due to the continued repetition of the task. Hierarchy allowed developing a chain of command. Format selection meant that employees were hired on knowledge and experience and no other criteria would be used. Career orientation ensured that career professionals would give the organisation a degree of continuity in operations. Rules and procedures controlled employee performance. The impersonality of the organisation ensured that rules were applied across the board without personality or other influence getting in the way. HUMAN RELATIONS During the 1920s, an emphasis on the human side of the workplace began to influence management thinking. They started to realise that people are social and self-actualising. People at work are seemed to seek satisfying social relationships, respond to group pressures, and search for personal fulfilment. The human relations movement began with the Hawthorne Studies that were conducted at the Western Electric Company in Cicero 1924 -1933. The intention of these studies was to determine the effect of working conditions on productivity. The illumination experiments tried to determine whether better lighting would lead to increased productivity. Both the control group and the experimental group of female employees produced more whether the lights were turned up or down. It was discovered that this increased productivity was a result of the attention received by the group. In the relay assembly group experiments, six female employees worked in a special, separate area. They were given breaks and had the freedom to talk and were continuously observed by a researcher who served as the supervisor. Once again researches failed to find any direct relationship between changes in physical working conditions and output. Productivity increased regardless of the changes made. Two factors were set up as having special importance. One was the group atmosphere; the workers shared pleasant social relations with one another and wanted to do a good job. The other was more participative supervision. The workers were made to feel important, were given a lot of information, and were frequently asked for their opinions. It was not the case in their regular jobs. The final Hawthorne Study was conducted in the bank wiring room and centred on the role of the work group. A surprise finding here was that people would restrict their output in order to avoid the displeasure of the group. It was recognised that group can have strong negative, as well as positive influences on individual productivity. Two writers who helped advance the human relation movement were Abraham Maslow and Douglas McGregor. In 1943, Maslow advanced a theory suggesting that people are motivated by a hierarchy of needs. Which are physiological, safety, social, esteem and self-actualisation needs. People try to satisfy the five needs in sequence. They progress step by step from the lowest up to the highest. Meanwhile Douglas McGregor represents Theory X and Theory Y. According to McGregor, managers holding Theory X believe that those who work for them generally dislike work, lack ambitions, are irresponsible and prefer to be led rather than to lead. While in the Theory Y managers believe that people willing to work are capable of self-control, are willing to accept responsibility, are imaginative and creative. CONCLUSIONS Scientific Management Analysis of the past allows a better understanding of the present to predict the future Scientific Management improved peoples productivity at work by reducing number of motions choosing one best way to perform the task. However, Scientific Management was not without its critics. Taylor assumed that people were motivated only by money and ignored social and psychological factors. Also, Scientific Management techniques often resulted in lay-offs and it led to job losses. Relationship between the organisation and environment wasnt taken to attention. Despite these criticisms, we use some of scientific techniques nowadays. For instance, on factory that produces mobile phones, the whole production mechanism is broken down to small tasks. The workers are guided by carefully calculated standards. They know how many details they should approximately produce per hour. Each movement is chosen carefully in order to reduce excess motions. I have been working in a hotel industry for three years. The scientific management techniques have been used in my department as well. To make checking in and out more efficient everyone had his or her own best way of performing the task. Administrative Management. Nowadays Faylols five main functions gained widespread recognition. Lets take a hotel, for instance. Managers have to make plans for the future, organise short-term plans, co-ordinate recourses and finances, and control plans get their goals. In the Royal Bayswater Hotel, where I worked, managers aim was to get a Service Excellence Award. They planed to increase service by: training the staff; paying more attention to internal customers because happy staff is happy customers and by trying to exceed customers expectations. During all this process managers were controlling if everything was following the plans. And as a result to everybodys effort the hotel has been awarded with Best Excellence Service Award Bureaucracy While the term Bureaucracy has a negative meaning some of its elements are still relevant. In the earlier mentioned hotel, for example, staff is selected and promoted on ability to perform the task. Workers are career orientated. In order to obtain the organisational objectives procedures are measured and performed according to the organisational rules and standards. Standards and rules applied without personal influence. Human Relations Until the late 20th human relationship hasnt been taken to serious consideration. It has only been  after Hawthorne Experiments, the improvement of relations between all levels has been accepted as a very important element in the development and improvement of any organisation . This is still have a great importance  nowadays. The job of the manager in the workplace is to get things done through employees. To do this the manager should be able to encourage, teach, control, motivate and lead people. But that easier said than done. At my place of work there were different people with different needs. While some of them were satisfied with physiological and safety needs, the others there seeking for recognition from others, self-control and actualisation. So managers couldnt expect a good performance at work if an individuals needs havent been satisfied. We also had two types of managers. 1 Those who followed Theory X assumption 2 Those who followed Theory Y assumption As for me it was more difficult to work who doesnt give you much freedom for your thoughts, and things that supervision is a necessity. On the other hand, it was a pleasure to work with someone who allows more flexibility, and thinks that control and punishment are not the only ways to make people work. As a result they got more commitment to the organisation. LIST OF REFERENCES 1 ManagementStephen P. Robbinsons, Mary Coulter, 7 edition 2 Management John R. Schermerhorn, JR. 8 edition 3 Management John R. Schermerhorn, JR. 7 edition 4Management Ricky W. Griffin 7 edition 5 Modern Management Siobhan D. Tiernan, Michael J. Morley, Edel Foley www.sfsu.edu/~erich/slides2/-5k www.ee.uwa.edu.au/~ccroft/em333/leca02.html-12k www.evolutionevent.co.uk/-2k

The Affects of the Human Genome Project on Society Essay -- Genetics S

The Affects of the Human Genome Project on Society Today’s society has an ever growing thirst for knowledge as we have for many hundreds of years now. Scientists work around the clock studying the affects of nearly everything they can think of to conduct experiments on. This quest for knowledge is the supposed start to a better life for man kind and ultimately a world without disease or hunger. The human genome project is one that has been going on for about 20 years. This project set out to map, down to the last detail, every part of the human DNA structure (â€Å"Human†). The project has recently been completed and the scientists are now starting another project with their newly found information, to cure mankind of its ailments. Although there are many positive things that can come of this recent discovery, there are many adverse affects that society is not yet fully aware of and as the experiments and test results come in, more and more will society be blinded to the downsides of genetic research because of the glitz, glamour, and promises provided by the corporations and universities This paper will not just hone in on the recently completed human genome project but will also take a look at the many adverse affects of what is now possibly to come if the science of human perfection is to continue unchecked. The possibilities for this new science are great, but without the general public guiding it every step of the way, the universities and corporations will be free to do as they wish. With the power to change life on this planet as we know it, the teams of scientists may ultimately one day have the ability to control what is happening through nearly every second of our life: what we eat, what we drink, what happen... ...uman Being, The Medusa and the Snail: More Notes of a Biology Watcher. New York: Viking Press, 1979. Thomas, in his book of short stories explores many different issues of human nature and in this book gives his viewpoint on many well known topics and some unknown yet still interesting topics alike. Although this book is somewhat dated, the articles present are still applicable to a lot of the situations we are facing in this current day and age. The author of the book is quite refreshing in the way that he is able to look at both the light and dark of a situation yet keep a positive attitude towards most of the nearing innovations in science. Reference List †¢ Human Genome Project Information. US Department of Energy. April 20, 2003. http://www.ornl.gov/TechResources/Human_Genome/home.html †¢ Clinton, Bill. Whitehouse Press Conference. June 25, 2000.

Emission Reduction Essay

In every economic activity, both positive and negative implications compound such activities. The positive implications include employment increase, supply of goods and market, supply of public goods, environmental control above others. However, every economic activity is as well a compound of negative implications. These are called negative externalities. They include pollution, environmental degrading, increase in crime, and social evils above others. Emission reduction like any other negative externality calls for a very dynamic tools of control. Generally, the basic control of negative externalities by corporations in the economy is through the government taxation imposition. The government would impose a corporate tax levy which is substantially equivalent to the cost of the emission to the environment. Through such levy, the government uses passive methods of compensation to the community over such impacts of the emission. Through the tax levy, the cost of operation to the plant is increased. (Prencipe, Davies, Hoboday, 2003) Economically, taxation provides two cost related variables with which the plant should choose from. Firstly, through higher cost of production which may perhaps outweigh its level of market profits, the plant may be forced out in the market. This is because high tax levy is synonymous to an increase in the cost of production. With high cost of production the plant is at a competitive disadvantage in the highly competitive market. It may then opt to choose an alternative method of investment. (Prencipe, Davies, Hoboday, 2003) Elsewhere, such tax is a disincentive in the choice of production method. From the broad alternative of energy production e. g. use of electric turbines to generate power. Use of environmental friendly method would then call up such tax levied formerly. The basic purpose of higher taxes by the government towards negative externalities is to provide a disincentive in specific lines and methods of operation which are harmful to the environment. It is a tool for choosing alternative methods of production.

Literary Analysis Of Disgrace - 960 Words

Disgrace’s Literary essay The author of the novel Disgrace manages to offer a raw portrait of the awful political and social reality of South Africa, after the shameful apartheid has ended, almost a century of violence and fear has been left behind, apparently. He presented his characters as tough as the grey reality involving a whole nation, but at the same time, some hope is being given, brightening an inclusive future to the suffered population. Lurie, the main character, is shown as a seductive, educated, and accommodated professor of an university, just as a real example of the dominant social class that had prevailed for some time, living in a subjugated country for years, with the majority victimized with racial violence and†¦show more content†¦Although in this part of the story we are unable to notice a major change in the character represented by Lurie (remember the parallel with the former white supremacy government), it is perceivable a will to accept the faults, recognizing the negative facts and dealing with them, paving the road for a future of forgiveness and truth. The transformation into which David undergoes systematically, is totally credible, being just a divorced man and not communicating very often with his only daughter, satisfying his sexual desires with prostitutes and having his teaching job practically as a vehicle to get economic stability, Lurie begins to experience changes as the novel evolves, when he realizes that he cares about other people’s feelings, evidenced when he asks for Melanie’s father pardon at their house: â€Å"I am sorry for what I took your daughter through. You have a wonderful family. I apologize for the grief I have caused you and Mrs. Isaacs. I ask for your pardon.† (73) The center of the novel, the key plot must be called, is the rape scene at Lucy’s farm. 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